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INTRODUCTION

The nineteenth century AD was a time of momentous political and economic upheaval in Europe. Politically, the French Revolution of the late eighteenth century proclaimed a new political dispensation of freedom, equality and brotherhood that drove many citizens of France and other European countries to question the nature of the relationships they had with the state and the ruling class. Economically, the Industrial Revolution that began in the eighteenth century in Britain transformed Europe’s production which affected trade, commerce and social dynamics of society. Changes in production brought about a change in societal socioeconomic stratification, and with it came unforeseen effects on family and society.

The divide between the mostly rich owners of production (capital) and the mostly poor providers of labour grew in spite of both classes increasing in size. New classes of urban rich and urban poor were created in the new cities and towns that were built as centres of production, joining the rural agrarian rich and poor classes. Urban workers became more self reliant, leading to stronger solidarity among themselves than their rural counterparts. This was manifested in the formation of multiple welfare and trade unions. Urban life brought about its own challenges, leading to a general decline in morals and greater friction between the classes.

The Catholic Church, aware of the above issues that worried and distressed all spheres of society particularly workers, saw it fit in the last decade of the nineteenth century to speak frankly and categorically about the condition of workers in order to make her stand known on these matters in a manner consistent with the responsibilities of her Apostolic Office. In 1891, the then Pope, Leo XIII, wrote an encyclical letter titled On the Condition of Workers to Catholic clergy in order to guide them on how to approach this most contentious subject. This encyclical can be divided into three main parts: the bone of contention, the limitations of secular solutions proposed, and the solutions proposed by the Church.

THE BONE OF CONTENTION

The bone of contention as noted by Pope Leo XIII was the difficulty in defining the boundaries between owners of capital (employers) and providers of labour (employees) in regard to their rights, duties and restraints that ought to have been put in place to govern their relationships.

This difficulty developed historically, exacerbated by actions of the State acting at the behest of the ruling classes. Not long before the Industrial Revolution began, trade guilds that had protected trade craft practitioners from the State and from the owners of their means of production were abolished through the abuse of power of the ruling classes. With this protection gone, owners of capital grew more powerful and began to exploit and abuse labourers with reckless abandon.

The advent of the philosophical Age of Enlightenment enshrined reason over faith and relegated traditional religious teaching to the home, casting it out of schooling, public institutions and legislation. As a result, vices that were previously taboos began to be practiced openly in society. An increase of greed, inhumanity, usury and avarice by the rich, and envy of the poor towards the rich followed.

As the Industrial Revolution progressed, entire processes of production and trade began to come under the control of fewer and fewer select rich elites, to the detriment of the masses, most of whom were labourers.

SECULAR SOLUTIONS AND THEIR LIMITATIONS

In the nineteenth century secular solutions to the above problems were put forth by intellectuals and social commentators of the time who grappled with them, one of which gained currency: socialism, and its variants communism and Marxism. The solution, as they saw it, was to abolish private ownership of property, and instead make all goods of individuals to become commonly owned by all, with the ruling municipalities at the local level or governments at the national level acting as administrators of the commonly held goods. The seeming goal of this socialism is to divide wealth and its derived benefits equally among all citizens, thereby doing away with the exploitation of labourers by owners of capital.

Pope Leo XIII noted, however, that socialism would not bring to an end the conflict between labour and owners of capital, but would instead intensify it, pervert functions of the State and confuse operations of government. He identified four objections to socialism: it is unnatural, it is unjust, it undermines the institution of the family and it erodes the wealth of a society.

Socialism is unnatural. This is because it is from nature that man gets his provisions for sustenance and consequently his right to possess things privately, a right that socialism actively seeks to take away from him. Animals are driven by two powerful instincts: survival (to protect themselves) and propagation (to ensure continuity of their species), and they do these by making use of things they find in their immediate environment. Man, having been endowed with intellect (reason) and free will, faculties that animals lack, is also driven by the two fundamental instincts but also derives more from life, such as purpose and enjoyment, which would not be possible without him possessing the things he needs. When God created man and gave him dominion over all of creation, He directed him to take care of it. To do this he must, just like animals, use what he finds in his immediate environment, and without possessing these things he would be hindered in fulfilling this responsibility. Thus man’s dependence on nature gives him the right to take from it what his immediate needs require. To then prohibit him from possessing these things, or anything else, becomes an unnatural thing to do.

Socialism is unjust. By holding in common all the fruits of people’s individual effort and then purporting to divide these fruits equally among them, or worse, according to how much they seem to need as judged by the authorities (communism), a great fraud is committed. Individuals make use of the earth’s provisions differently and use their talents differently to produce different things. In these circumstances the output of individuals will always vary, and the different circumstances will result in some producing more and others less at any given time. To then deny individuals the right to enjoy all the fruits of their labour by pooling them to distribute equally among them results in some getting more and others less than what their toil produced. This is unjust, and as the Scriptures indicate, a labourer deserves his wages.

Socialism undermines the institution of the family. Nature gives man the right to possess the things he takes from it to meet his immediate needs as an individual. This right is affirmed even more strongly for man in his capacity as head of a family. A man has a sacred duty to provide for his family. This is not a duty unique to man; it is one of the two powerful instincts that drive animals, namely propagation for the preservation and continuity of the species. Man is unable to do this duty if he cannot privately own possessions which he can share with his family and pass on to them as inheritance. Thus the wellbeing of his family would be imperiled by a system that prohibits private possession of things. Furthermore, stripping parents of the capability of providing for their children from their toil by substituting their effort with donations from the State, undermines the institution of the family which was created directly by God and preceded the institution of the State which is man-made.

Socialism erodes the wealth of a society. Enjoying the fruits of one’s labour is the incentive that drives creativity, ingenuity and industriousness in man as he works to make use of the earth’s provisions to produce things that are useful for himself, his family and the society at large. If he is then to be deprived of some of these fruits by a system that pools all the fruits produced by the toil of individuals for equal distribution among everyone, his incentive to work hard will decrease since he will work with the knowledge that others will unfairly enjoy the fruits of his toil. As a result, his productivity will decrease. Consequently, the ‘pool of all the fruits produced’ will shrink. In the end, the wealth of the society will dwindle.

THE SOLUTIONS PROPOSED BY THE CHURCH

The Catholic Church realizes that socialism’s attempts to interfere with nature are vain, as it is a reality that the differences that exist among people in their talents, skills, vigour, health, capacities, aptitudes, circumstances, etc. necessarily yield different results from their work or trades, and as such they cannot be made equal. For society to function at all levels, from the family to the larger community and the State, there is a need of these differences in people to exist so that the different products and services people need can be produced, for if all people were the same, it would be very difficult for them to be diverse in their production.

The promise made by socialism to the poor is that their suffering and tribulations will be lessened considerably if not eliminated entirely, and replaced with bliss. This is a false promise. The Fall of man in the Garden of Eden was due to his freely choosing sin, and human suffering is one consequence of this Fall. Suffering cannot be eliminated from life by any human striving.

Assuming that the rich and the poor cannot coexist in harmony but must always be in conflict with each other goes against reason and truth. Both are parts of the same human body, and in any body the parts cannot be in conflict with each other but rather complement each other for the harmony the body needs to function.

First, at the most basic level, the owners of capital and the labourers they employ must be just towards each other, i.e. give each other their due. The Church, having members from both classes, is in a privileged position to be able to foster unity among the two classes by calling them to their mutual duties.

Labourers, who are mostly poor and are employed by owners of capital, must perform to the full and to the best of their abilities the work that has been agreed upon voluntarily and equitably with their employers. They must also never harm their employers’ person or properties, act violently, become riotous, or associate with people who deceive and incite them to disorder by use of false hope. While they do this, they must also protect their interests.

Owners of capital, who are mostly rich and employ the labourers, must respect the human dignity of their employees, not treat them as slaves or objects of financial gain, allow them adequate free time, not expose them to corrupt influences that entice people to sin, not alienate them from their families and loved ones, not interfere with their practice of thrift, and not impose more work on them than they can safely endure.

Secondly, the Church goes beyond justice and calls both classes to have a mutual neighbourliness and friendship. Given that both rich and poor encounter the same kinds of challenges in life, and that this life is not permanent but temporary and transitory, the Church asks them to put aside their differences and instead look together to their common future: the next life, eternal life.

Here, the rich are cautioned that wealth cannot eliminate human sorrow or suffering and can be a stumbling block to eternal life. In addition, they need to make a distinction between just ownership of wealth and just use of wealth. Nature gives every man the right to own private property. But nature does not prescribe what he ought to do with what he owns. The Church urges those with possessions to consider them as not being for their own exclusive use only, but common such that they can readily share them with others in need. This charity is not out of obligation, but rather following the teachings of Sacred Scripture and Church Traditions.

At the same time, the Church reminds the poor and those without wealth that there is no shame in poverty or in having to work for a living. Jesus himself worked as a carpenter and in his public ministry interacted with both the poor and the rich. In spite of this, God has in the Scriptures a special preference for the poor, calling them blessed.

Thirdly, the Church seeks to move even beyond friendship of the two classes by instructing them to love one another, in accordance with the teachings in the Sacred Scripture, of which she is the custodian. God, having created all people and all things, is the only source of true and lasting harmony, which having been lost at The Fall He set about restoring in stages, most profoundly in the salvation brought by his Son Jesus Christ. All men have fallen short of the glory of God through sin, and all have been redeemed through Jesus, restored as children of God and promised an inheritance in heaven which can be forfeited only by their own actions. Thus redeemed man should recall the time before The Fall, when creation was entrusted by God to man, and realize all that is found in or derived from nature is meant for the common benefit of all.

The Church does not just illuminate the remedy of the illness caused by the rift between the rich and the poor. She herself administers the remedy. Jesus Christ gave the Church the responsibility of continuing His public ministry on earth. He empowered her to be able to reach out to all people and call them to obedience, discipline, duty, love, and guide them along the path of virtue and give them the courage to overcome any obstacles along this path. The Church calls man to strive towards realizing the purpose for which he was created, which he turned away from by sinning.

Observance of Christian morals has yielded for man not only spiritual prosperity but also material prosperity through the blessings bestowed on him by God and also the restraint they make him exercise in his desire for wealth and pleasure. Temperance is a virtue that makes people restrain their appetites and become content with a life of moderation. This moderation guards against greed and wastefulness of wealth that brings wretchedness.

The Church has also founded multiple institutions and religious orders which have for ages assisted the poor and less fortunate in society by means of carrying out the corporal and spiritual works of mercy, being driven by charity. The description of St. Luke in Acts of the early Church is testimony to this fact. This charity of the Church has from the beginning encountered opposition from non-Christians and even States, yet it has not been surpassed or even equaled by any human effort or endeavour.

Notwithstanding Christian charity, helping the poor also requires efforts from individuals of good will and also the action of the State. To achieve this end, the rulers of States are bound by law to govern and make decisions that serve not themselves but the common interest. History demonstrates clearly some of the things that make States prosperous: wholesome morality, protection and proper ordering of the family life, protection of religion and virtue, moderate imposition and equitable distribution of public burdens on the citizens, progressive development of industry and trade, and thriving agriculture. The rulers of the State ought to safeguard the environment in which these things can be brought to fruition, complemented by Christian charity.

Citizens of a State enjoy equal rights, and as such should not be treated unequally by the State. Poor citizens and rich citizens should be treated the same by the State. Since the poor are more numerous than the rich, it follows that the State ought to take deliberate actions to safeguard the interests of the poor even while being careful not to discriminate against the rich, so that justice does not lose its distributive nature in society. All citizens have a contribution to make in good governance, yet the State cannot require them to contribute in equal manner and degree at any given time because of the natural differences among them that manifest in their different conditions.

The possessions of man are derived from nature and require labour to produce. Wealth, which is an abundance of material goods, is the fruit of human labour, and a good indicator of a well-constituted State. Public authority ought therefore to protect the rights of workers since it is from them that the wealth of the State arises. However in showing genuine concern for workers, the State should not interfere with the freedom of individuals or the institution of the family. But at the same time the State must protect the larger community and its constituent parts. This is following the example of God, who cares for the welfare of individual creatures and also for creation as a whole. The intervention of public authority in private affairs ought to take place only in situations where injury to an individual or group or the public good has been done or threatened and it cannot be repaired or prevented by private initiative.

The protection of rights in any jurisdiction is the duty of the governing authority. This encompasses deterring injury and criminality, and punishing it when it occurs. The rich in society are, by virtue of their wealth, not so reliant on the protection of the State unlike the poor who lack sufficient means of protecting themselves from the vagaries of life to the same degree as the rich. In this regard the State, while protecting all its citizens, must pay special attention to the poor who are the most vulnerable.

The safeguarding of the right to own private property is the duty of the governing authority. It does this through the establishment and enforcement of laws. These laws do not limit the desires of individuals to strive for improvement of their lot, but only forbid injustice and criminality like forceful taking or damaging of a person’s property by another, even if this is done under a misguided notion of equality as is the case with socialism. The law acts as a restraint and deterrent from such actions and also prescribes the appropriate punishment for transgressors.

A common cause of discontent and subsequent unrest among workers is labour that is too long and too hard while seemingly earning them little. The unrest manifests itself in various ways including go-slows, interruption of work, sabotage, strikes, rioting and disturbances of public peace. These manifestations harm not only the workers themselves (unproductive use of their time, idleness) and their employers (reduced productivity, losses), but also the State and the public interest of society (reduced trade and commerce, disturbance of peace, damage to property, injury to persons and sometimes loss of lives in cases of violence). The State, using it authority at all levels, has the responsibility of taking preemptive action to avert disruptions of labour by identifying and addressing grievances of workers early before conflicts between them and their employers escalate.

The State ought to go beyond protecting the rights of people pertaining to material things, but also protect their rights pertaining to non-material things. Life is not just physical, but extends beyond what is visible. With respect to the responsibilities given to man by God his Creator (fill the earth and subdue it), all people are equal. The State ought to ensure neither its governing authority nor anyone or anything else hinders people from carrying out these responsibilities, without making any distinction between rich and poor.

Workers must rest from time to time, especially on Sundays and holy days of obligation, in order to physically recuperate from toil and restore their energy. At the same time and more importantly, they should focus on God, whom they should never fail to acknowledge, praise and express their heartfelt gratitude to both individually in private and communally in public places of worship. Time off work will always attract temptations to idleness, vice and squandering of money on useless pursuits. Workers should be wary of these temptations and remember it is God Himself who sanctified work rest from work when He rested on the seventh day from His work of creation.

Some work requires physical exertion and such should not be imposed on women and children. Child labour, moreover, interferes with (part-time) and prevents (full-time) children’s pursuit of education, and should be outlawed by the State. Any work which may interfere with the modesty of women due to its nature or demands should also not be asked of them.

Coming to the setting of the amount of wage for a given work, both the employer and the worker come to an agreement voluntarily, it is said. After this, the worker does the work agreed upon to the required standard, and the employer then pays him the wage. In theory, neither party owes the other anything more than this. However in reality, there are more obligations than stated here which both parties ought to honour.

One of the consequences of The Fall, according to Genesis, is the reality that man must work to secure daily living. This work is not leisure, but rather strenuous expenditure of energy in converting the natural resources found in the environment into useful things needed to preserve life and meet daily needs, as well as make life enjoyable. From this, it is seen that work has two characteristics that define its central role in human existence: it is personal and necessary.

Work is personal because it requires of each individual his own input in terms of intellect and energy in order to obtain its fruits. The input is given and the output got by an individual as a result of his efforts. Anyone engaging in work must take part in it actively. Work leaves no room for passivity.

Work is necessary because by it man secures his daily living, preserves his life, provides for his family, acquires possessions he will bequeath them, and most importantly fulfills the command given to him by God in the beginning, of filling the earth and subduing it.

These two characteristics of work should both be taken into consideration by both the worker and the employer when fixing the wage for a given work. If only the personal nature of work is considered, then they can set the wage at too low for the toil involved, to the advantage of the employer and the disadvantage of the worker. If only the necessary nature of work is considered, then they can set the wage at too high for the toil involved, to the advantage of the worker and the disadvantage of the employer. Thus a balance must be struck that is in accordance with natural justice, which as a principle precedes the right to free consent of contracting parties: a wage ought to be enough to support a worker who is thrifty and upright.

The State should not intervene in labour matters of enterprises unnecessarily, but rather only if the rights granted by law to one of more of the parties involved in are imperiled or have been violated. Due to the large variation of circumstances, locations and seasons affecting labour relations in a dynamic manner, the State cannot make every decision everywhere pertaining to how long a worker toils per day doing a particular job, how many hours of rest per day is his due, etc. However the State can and should protect parties to a labour contract from accepting as binding because of force or coercion any agreement which is to their disadvantage.

The right to own private property is the underlying foundation of all thrift in man, and the means by which a person supports himself and his family adequately depends on safeguarding this right. When people know that the wages earned for the work they do are protected and for them exclusively, they are motivated to work diligently. If these wages are large enough to enable them to provide for themselves and their families comfortably, then they will, if prudent, be thrifty and accumulate savings over time with which they can acquire some little wealth.

As a result of people being free to work and earn wages, support themselves and their families and gradually grow their wealth, the division of goods in the State becomes more equitable. The polarization of society into two extremes (few rich and many poor) is altered as poverty is reduced and more people are able to by their work earn a living that enables them to acquire some wealth. There will be fewer people who are very rich and wield a disproportionate power, and also fewer people who are very poor, without any possessions, needy, vulnerable and prone to be exploited to cause disorder.

Taxes should not be used by the State to abuse its citizens by appropriating from private wealth more than is equitable and just to ensure that the public interest is sufficiently supported by citizens. The dangers of over-taxation of citizens are similar to those of socialism outlined earlier. However taxes also play another important role of limiting how much an individual can acquire and keep for himself, especially if this can jeopardize the public interest.

People are naturally inclined to associate with each other and form private societies. The family is the original private society. Over time, other associations and institutions were formed by individuals sharing common purposes and interests. Some of these organizations have by their charity greatly assisted the less fortunate members of society, the poor in particular, but also the sick, the aged, orphans, widows, etc. Workers have also formed associations for giving mutual aid to each other especially in the event of misfortune. These private societies are formed for private advantage. There are other societies which are formed not for private advantage but for public interest. These societies are public societies. Government and the State are the main public societies. Citizens have equal right to participate in public societies, but participation in private societies is a right granted by membership. The State should not forbid the formation of private societies or interfere with their operations unless they are purposed to undermine the public good, morality and justice.

The Catholic Church has formed multiple confraternities, societies and religious orders whose work, driven by charity, has greatly benefited society. These organizations are administered by the Church. But there have been cases where the State has unjustly granted itself the right to administer them, usurping the Church’s role. The Church has always deplored this. There are also multiple worker associations, some formed by and for Catholic workers, which have secret leaders and agendas not in accord with Christianity or natural justice. The Church urges Catholic workers to leave such associations and instead form their own. In this way they can refuse to be exploited for unjust ends, but instead continue making their positive contribution to society.

It is commendable that many Catholics have taken the initiative voluntarily to strive for better living conditions for workers, guided by the teachings of the Gospel which warn against greed and excess. The Catholic Church has assisted such efforts and continues to do so, particularly focusing on the spiritual wellbeing and improvement of associations in pursuit of these goals. Wealthy individual Catholics have also been charitable in supporting both the Church and these associations in this regard. The State has also protected the environment in which such private society initiatives thrive and ought to continue doing so, knowing that any interference in these matters on its part will hinder the realization of a just and equitable society.

It is the recommendation of the Catholic Church that the constitution of Catholic workers’ associations and their governance be guided by the suitability and convenience of the means adopted by members to pursue and achieve the desired goals so as to bring about in the lives of members an increase in physical and spiritual prosperity. To this end, the Church recognizes that each association formed will be unique in its membership, objectives, rules, practice, circumstances and character. As such, these things can be determined only by the members themselves, not outsiders.

Catholic workers’ associations ought to have as their primary goal the spiritual wellbeing of their members, calling them forth to strive for holiness in all spheres of their lives. For this is what the Gospel calls us to do. In this regard, these associations should facilitate religious instruction and spiritual formation of their members, ensuring that their work does not interfere with their spiritual obligations on Sundays and Holy Days, and their active participation in Church activities.

The founding of Catholic workers’ associations is based on common professional and spiritual interests. These interests guide the formation of objectives and regulations that stipulate criteria for membership, codes of conduct, dispute resolution and exit. As in other organizations, these associations have structures of governance that distribute responsibilities among multiple members, some of whom occupy various offices by virtue of their responsibilities. The distribution of these offices among members should be carried out in a manner that is in the members’ collective interests and does not discriminate against any member. Obligations of members should be clearly defined and shared out among members wisely such that no member or group is overburdened. Any disbursement of funds raised by members for a just cause or owed to members ought to be done on the basis of equity in a manner that is agreed upon beforehand, fixed and which takes into account members’ individual needs. The rights and duties of workers must correspond to the rights and duties of their employers. Any disputes that arise within the associations or between workers and their employers should be resolved according to the regulations members agreed upon.

Catholic associations have contributed significantly to the prosperity of States. From the beginning of the Church, when Christians were persecuted and many times made destitute by their rulers, they proved to be positive contributors to society by their thrift, industriousness, advocacy for justice and peace, and charity. By their good example many non-believers, even those more prosperous, embraced the Christian faith. For this reason Catholic associations ought to emulate the Christians of the past in the way their members conduct themselves, thereby evangelizing society by living the Christian ideals.

CONCLUSION

The Church has an important role to play in resolving the conflict between the rich and the poor, of which workers and their employers are the main antagonists. She is the promoter of Christian morals, which are the modern day weapons and armour against evil in the heart of man that is the source of all human conflict, discord and disharmony. In guiding all believers to embrace and practice the principles of Christian living as taught by Jesus in the Gospels, the Church ought to lay emphasis on the greatest commandment, that of love. For love is manifested in charity, the most important virtue and by which believers make sacrifices for the greater good.

2018 was a great year for innovation in Africa. The transformation of the continent is being carried out by Africans who have the courage to do things differently, often reaping rewards for their effort. It is not easy to keep up with all the rapid changes taking place on the continent. Below are four innovations that in 2018 demonstrated the potential to revolutionize life as we know it in Africa.

Urban-based hydroponic agriculture in recycled shipping containers. Oluwayimika Angel Adelaja is a Nigerian biologist and epidemiologist. Some years ago she began thinking of how to overcome the myriad of challenges small-scale farmers in Nigeria face, such as inaccessibility of relevant information and capital, lack of adequate tools, high transport costs, lack of proper storage for perishable crops, and long distances to target markets. She started a farming project with 10 greenhouses on a 300-hectare farm in a rural area not very far from Abuja. Later, she rethought her business model and began experimenting on hydroponic farming in old shipping containers in Abuja. Hydroponic farming substitutes soil for nutrient-filled water, thereby doing away with the need for land to farm. In early 2017 she was feted by the World Economic Forum for her work. She founded Fresh Direct Produce and Agro-Allied Services which in 2018 entered the local Abuja vegetables market full throttle, targeting corporate clients like hotels, restaurants and grocery stores. Upon harvesting and washing her crop, she is able to deliver it fresh to her nearest customers within fifteen minutes only. Her target is to grow locally microgreens which are imported. Currently she has two sites in Abuja which employ over sixty people, and is planning to expand into Lagos soon.

Solar-powered school bags. Evariste Akoumian is an Ivorian lawyer and tech-entrepreneur innovator. In the course of his travels for work, he encountered the many challenges children in off-grid rural areas face getting an education, primarily lack of electricity, and how it puts them at a disadvantage compared to their urban counterparts. This inspired and motivated him to develop a renewable energy solution for them. Solarpak is a school bag that contains solar cells, a battery and a detachable USB electric lamp. The solar cells on the bag are able to harness solar energy and charge the battery as the child carrying it on the back walks to and from school. With a short charging time of half an hour and a battery life of four to five hours, the battery can power the lamp after dusk. This allows the child to study in the evenings, read more and do homework using good light that paraffin lamps, wax candles and fire do not provide. Currently the bags are manufactured abroad and cost around 20 euros per bag. Evariste has partnered with different individuals and organizations in Ivory Coast, and has been able to sell over fifty-five thousand bags and donate thousands to people and communities in need. He is planning to start local manufacture of the bags in Abidjan and to expand into other African countries like Burkina Faso and Gabon. In 2018 Evariste was feted in the Africa Expansion Forum, the African Prestigioius Awards and the African Talent Awards. His vision is to ensure all children in off-grid areas all over the world, beginning in Ivory Coast, have Solarpak to assist them to excel in their education.

Growing bio-bricks from human urine. Dyllon Garth Randall is a South African scholar in the Water Quality Engineering department of the University of Cape Town. He engages in research on recovery of industrial process wastewater for good use. He is part of a group of researchers in the university who in 2017 were given a one-year feasibility grant by the South African government’s Water Research Commission to do research on how to produce bio-bricks from human urine. Building on work done by an American company BioMASON, which has been successful in making bricks from synthetic urea, Dyllon’s team was able this year to successfully develop bio-bricks from the natural urea found in human urine. His previous work on extracting urea from urine to make fertilizer, which involved innovating special urinals just for this purpose, was helpful. The pilot project used urine collected from men’s urinals in one of the engineering department buildings in the university. The urine goes through a two-stage chemical process that involves addition of industrial lime and special bacteria to produce a solid mass that is shaped into a brick. To make a single bio-brick requires between 20 and 30 litres of urine. The research group is now optimizing the process to use less volumes of urine per brick, adding a third stage that converts waste products of the process into fertilizer, and planning to scale up production by integrating the sewer system at the university with a bio-brick manufacturing facility.

Disease-diagnosing smartphone application. Rose Nakasi is a Ugandan computer scientist and PhD researcher in the Artificial Intelligence laboratory of Makerere University in Kampala. She is the lead scientist in a team based in the laboratory that has developed a smartphone application which uses artificial intelligence to analyze microscope images of blood samples to detect disease-causing microbes. The program has a library of images of infected blood samples, from which it develops criteria for identifying microbes. Deep learning algorithms enhance these criteria when images of new strains of microbes are added to the library. A smartphone with the software is clamped on a microscope’s eye-piece and an image is placed below it. On the smartphone screen the image is displayed, with the microbes circled. Typically, laboratory technicians manually analyze microscope images of blood samples. This takes time (around half an hour) and is prone to human errors that frequently lead to misdiagnosis. The app makes the process faster (can take just two minutes per image), cheaper and more accurate. In 2018 Rose and her research team used the app successfully to diagnose malaria and tuberculosis in small-scale clinical trials in hospitals in Kampala. Rose and her team are planning to roll out the innovation countrywide.

Youth, women, workers and farmers, all of whom are demographic majorities in Africa, are going to be the drivers of change on the continent. Africa’s future depends largely on their input into these changes. Advanced technologies will necessarily be the tool of choice used by them to effect these changes. Positive change is the result of innovation, and no progress has ever been achieved without discontent about the current state of affairs and the desire to improve life using what is available. The above are just a sample of the many different innovations that Africans are developing to transform African societies. This is the African revolution, unfolding through innovation. Each African has a role to play in contributing to making this revolution personal, by doing what they can where they are with what they have.

1. Punctuality – try to arrive in the main sanctuary at least ten minutes before the Mass begins, so that you can gain composure, say a short prayer and prepare your mind and heart for the Mass; if you are late because of unavoidable circumstances then sit in the back to minimize disruption.
2. Eucharistic Fast – if receiving Holy Communion, ensure you fast for at least one hour before receiving; consumption of water and medication less than one hour before receiving is allowed in some exceptional circumstances (if it is necessary).
3. Eating and Drinking – there should be no consumption of food or drink during Mass, regardless of whether one is receiving Holy Communion or not, and this includes confectionery (sweets, chewing gum, etc.); there are some exceptions, like drinking water for clergy, choir and small children (must be consumed discreetly).
4. Dress – only modest dress is acceptable in the Church, for both men and women, as a sign of respect for God’s house; this includes clean clothes which are not too tight or too loose, skirts of appropriate length, and no hats for men.
5. Crossing with Holy Water – when entering and leaving the main sanctuary, it is important for Catholics to cross themselves with Holy Water as a reminder of their baptism.
6. Genuflection and bowing – before sitting on a pew and before leaving after standing it is appropriate to genuflect (right knee touching the floor) facing the tabernacle as a sign of respectful acknowledgement of the lordship of God; those physically unable to genuflect can bow reverently; during Mass if one has to walk past the altar or the tabernacle, it is also appropriate to genuflect or bow reverently.
7. Use of mobile phones, tablets and other electronic gadgets – it is not acceptable to make phone calls in the main sanctuary during Mass, except in emergencies during which it is still imperative to be discreet to avoid disruption (go outside the sanctuary); use of smartphones and tablets for following the Bible readings is acceptable, but must also be done discreetly; any other activity is unacceptable, like listening to music, or chatting on social media, or surfing the web, or playing games, etc.
8. Sitting on pews – a believer who is first to sit on a pew should always sit in the centre, not on either edge, to avoid others having to climb over; men should offer ladies, the elderly and the disabled their seating places in the event the sanctuary is packed.
9. Silence – it is appropriate to remain silent while in the main sanctuary and especially during the Mass, as noise of any kind is unacceptable since it causes disruption and distracts focus on God; those with babies and small children who may cry are advised to sit near an exit and close to the edge of the pews so that in the event of a crying baby or child the parent can quickly take him or her out of the sanctuary to minimize disruption.
10. Bulletins – it is not appropriate to read the bulletin during the Mass as it distracts one from focusing on what is going on; an exception is during the announcements when one can read to follow the person speaking.
11. Offertory – this should be prepared before the Mass begins, so that when the offering bag reaches one can put it in immediately; delaying the movement of the offering bag while removing offering from one’s wallet or purse is inappropriate; non-monetary offertory items can be presented with others in the offertory procession.
12. Respecting boundaries – not all parishioners will be enthusiastic about the communal actions during the Mass, like singing, the responses, making the sign of peace (handshake), etc. and one should respect the decisions of others not shaking their hands, not kneeling, etc. without judging them for worshipping differently; also, people who know each other should not behave in a manner to distract others, say rubbing one another’s hands or backs, cuddling, etc.
13. Receiving Holy Communion – one can receive on the tongue or on the hand; before receiving it is appropriate to bow reverently as a sign of respect for the Lord’s Most Holy Body and Blood; if Communion of both kinds is administered to the faithful then a person who is sick (cold, flu, sneezing, etc.) should not partake of the chalice; upon receiving, one should consume the Communion immediately.
14. Leaving the main sanctuary after the Mass ends – the faithful should leave the main sanctuary only after the exit procession of clergy, altar boys and Mass servers has exited; leaving should be quiet without disruption; it is recommended to say a short thanksgiving prayer before leaving; in parishes having Masses back to back, one should not delay leaving after a Mass to create room for those coming in for the next Mass.